Tomoya Obokata is the UN Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of Slavery, including its causes and consequences, since March 2020. He is a Japanese scholar of international law and human rights, specialising in transnational organised crime, human trafficking and modern slavery, and a Professor of International Human Rights Law at York Law School, in the United Kingdom. He came to Brussels in September for meetings with the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and civil society organisations, as well as a media briefing on the “Omnibus Package”, currently being discussed at the European Parliament.
In February 2025, the European Commission presented a proposal to amend EU directives on sustainability reporting and due diligence (Omnibus Proposal). This would entail simplifying the landmark Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD), which entered into force in July 2024. The OHCHR is concerned about such a simplification, which would mean that the CSDDD is not aligned with international standards.
Beyond this legal and specific question, the Special Rapporteur’s mandate has a broad scope, covering issues such as traditional slavery, forced labour, debt bondage, serfdom, children working in slavery or slavery-like conditions, domestic servitude, sexual slavery, and servile forms of marriage. Tomoya Obokata gave UNRIC this exclusive interview on modern forms of slavery, which are also rife in Europe.
What is the importance of the Omnibus package discussed in the European Parliament?
It is pretty important because it is more than likely to hurt the ongoing efforts to eradicate contemporary forms of slavery, such as child labour and forced labour, further down in the supply chains. The simplification of the original law undermines the risk-based approach, promoted by the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Often, the greatest risks exist beyond “tier one”, or a company’s direct relationships. By limiting the scope of due diligence to direct relationships only, EU companies would no longer be compelled to conduct risk assessments further down the line. This deviates from established international standards.
Is it an open door to forced labour or other forms of abuse?
Yes. Without proper identification and mitigation, exploitation may continue in various parts of the world.
How many millions of people are in forced labour today?
According to the latest global estimates, about 28 million. Recent figures from the International Labour Organization (ILO) and UNICEF show that 138 million children are working instead of going to school, in contravention with the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Helping out a family for a few hours outside school is not an issue, but systematic work that replaces schooling is.
Out of these, approximately 54 million are engaged in hazardous work in sectors such as mining and agriculture, where they are exposed to harsh weather or toxic chemicals, or carry heavy or dangerous equipment to produce goods and services. These need to stop as well.
What is the international response?
First and foremost, member states of the United Nations must do a great deal more. They must have clear legislative frameworks and enforce national laws against child and forced labour. Almost all countries already have laws or regulations prohibiting these practices, but enforcement is key.
That requires effective labour inspectorates, which go into the field to identify child and forced labour. This is not happening in many parts of the world. Enforcement requires resources and trained officials. Prosecution and punishment are also difficult, while accountability and impunity are significant issues. Big brands in Europe and elsewhere are rarely held responsible for abuses in their supply chains.
Beyond legal measures, we must pay attention to the root causes of forced and child labour: poverty, inequality, intersecting forms of discrimination affecting vulnerable groups – women, children, young people, indigenous peoples, gender diverse people, and people with disabilities. They are more likely to be exploited and victimised than others because of discrimination and lack of access to quality education, social protection, and decent work.
It is not only the responsibility of countries where child or forced labour occurs. Wealthy nations also share equal responsibility to support these countries in addressing these root causes. Ultimately, consumers in Europe, Japan, North America, and certain parts of Asia are driving the demand for affordable goods and services. Major corporations respond to this demand, which leads to cheaper labour further down the supply chain. As consumers, we are all equally responsible for these practices. Raising awareness is therefore essential.
Are there huge differences between the high-income and middle or low-income countries in modern forms of slavery?
Obviously, many of the goods and services are produced and sourced from Asia, Africa, and Latin America, so they are affected by modern forms of slavery. But in Europe, there are different sorts of contemporary forms of slavery, such as domestic servitude for people working in private homes and the care sector. Nowadays, many European countries are dependent on migrants to provide care and support. That sometimes leads to exploitation and abuse.
Another dimension would be sexual exploitation. Sex workers are consenting adults providing sexual services voluntarily, and I’ve made it clear that this should be regarded as work. The real problem is forced prostitution and trafficking. Commercial exploitation, in particular of children and young people, who are forced to provide these services, increasingly through the use of the Internet, is a huge problem in Europe.
Criminal exploitation is also an issue across Europe, with people being forced into criminal activities such as drugs and weapons trafficking, organized theft and organized begging.
The legalization of sex work in Europe has not led to the eradication of human trafficking linked to prostitution…
My position has been to decriminalized sex work, and many European countries have done so already. Those who are against sex work would always argue that legalisation or decriminalisation will open the door for more people being trafficked. It might be valid to some extent, but the Nordic model, where the purchase of sexual services is criminalized, has reportedly driven activities underground, making it more dangerous for sex workers.
Moving from Europe to China, are there particular forms of modern slavery?
I produced a report on the exploitation of minorities, and I made a reasonable conclusion that there has been exploitation of the Uyghur minorities in China. The Chinese authorities deny the allegations and claim they’re providing work opportunities. However, if you examine the way the workers are treated, that may amount to forced labour. And I also hinted at the possibility of a crime against humanity.
What triggers a country visit for you?
We send requests to various countries. I can only go when I receive an official invitation. I cannot simply go in and conduct investigations randomly, as it requires coordination. I meet public and law enforcement officials, local authorities, as well as non-governmental stakeholders. I just came back from Brazil, where I was invited.
Your latest country visits were in Australia and Côte d’Ivoire. What were the main findings in Côte d’Ivoire regarding child labour in the cocoa sector?
In Côte d’Ivoire, the government is intensifying its efforts to eradicate child labour, working with civil society, cooperatives and businesses. I visited a cocoa farm that had no child labour – the number of such farms is increasing – but there are still instances of child labour. While I acknowledged the government’s important steps and good practices on the ground, I concluded that more work has to be done.
Do you plan more country visits in Europe?
Serbia has officially extended an invitation to me, and two Western European countries have also shown interest. I welcome official invitations from any European country.
Do you work closely with other entities for the UN?
We collaborate on inter-agency projects addressing human trafficking, involving the OHCHR, ILO, UN Women, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and other key partners. Coordination also occurs on the ground. I just came back from Bangkok where ILO and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) work closely, which is wonderful to see.
As Special Rapporteur, are you limited to producing reports?
I am an independent expert. All we can do is produce fact-finding reports. Then it’s up to the governments to implement. However, my reports are often used by civil society and trade unions as a kind of milestone to hold governments accountable.
I can also liaise with governments and other stakeholders directly when I receive allegations of contemporary forms of slavery with a view to promoting constructive dialogue and finding solutions to these allegations if they are true.
There may be a point in having a senior UN representative on contemporary forms of slavery at a higher strategic level, just like there is a Special Representative on Children in Armed Conflict, to facilitate a political dialogue behind the scenes, because contemporary forms of slavery exist in every single country.